[Abstract] As we know, animals are good friends of human beings. In the long progress of human society, animals contribute much to man’s living. Therefore, animal words come to human language and play a very important role in human communication. Language is a cultural carrier. There are a lot of animal words in both English and Chinese but the two countries have great differences in cultural backgrounds and thinking modes. These differences between the two cultures lead to different figurative meanings of animal words. This essay will try to compare the figurative meanings of animal words both in English and Chinese from the following aspects: same animal association vehicles with the similar and different figurative meanings, the different animal association vehicles with the similar figurative meanings and the semantic gaps. With comparison, we can clearly see that these figurative meanings of animal words greatly influence the intercultural communication. As an important means of cross-cultural communication, translation is also closely connected with culture. For the purpose of our effective communication, we should use different kinds of methods to do the equivalent translation between the two languages and build a bridge for the linguistic cultural exchange.
[Key Words] animal words; figurative meaning; association vehicle; English and Chinese cultures; intercultural communication; translation 【摘 要】众所周知，动物是人类的朋友。在人类社会漫长的发展过程中，动物为人类的生存提供物质基础。而语言作为文化的载体，记录着人类社会文明发展的进程；人类的语言中必然存在着大量的反映动物名称的词汇。但由于汉英两个民族各自的社会文化背景和思维方式不同，英语论文网站，英语论文，在动物词的喻义的表现上也不尽相同。本文拟从英汉两种文化中动物词的联想喻体与喻义之间的对应联系着手，主要表现为：同一联想喻体，喻义却有同有异；不同联想喻体，喻义却相同以及一方语义空缺等来进行比较略论，从中得知汉英两个民族在以动物为比喻的运用上存在着异同，而这种异同给跨文化交际带来障碍。因此在跨文化交际中，我们必须正确理解这些动物联想喻体所负载的文化信息，采取不同的措施进行英汉两种语言的等值翻译，以便减少交际障碍，为两种语言文化的交流搭建一座沟通的桥梁。
【关键词】动物词；喻义；联想喻体；汉英文化；跨文化交际；翻译 1. Introduction
1.1 Close relationship between animals and human beings
Human beings and animals are both the products of natural evolution, and factually man had evolved from animals. But since human beings created language, there have existed some great differences between man and animals. Language, the result of human labor and social activities, is human specific, which is the major factor that distinguishes human beings from animals. In the long progress of human society, animals, which provide food and labor force for human, have been closely bound up with human existence and development. Their furs were also good dress materials for ancient human to keep out wind and cold. In a certain stage of primitive society, man once considered animals as Gods to worship. So far animals are still close friends of human beings. Now that animals play an important role in human lives, the animal words in human languages will bear the deep socio-cultural imprints in the course of being used long by the human beings.
1.2 Influence of animal words in both Chinese and English culture
Language is the carrier and container of cultural information. Human beings have been interacting with the world and accumulated their experience and knowledge about the world, which are represented in language. As a result, we can find in language all human knowledge and experience which are interpreted as cultural information. [1] So in human language there exist a plenty of animal words that are often used as kinds of association vehicles. Human beings often associate their feelings and emotions with various animals according to animals’ features such as their appearances, habits and characteristics so that the names or images of animals possess specific cultural connotations.
Culture is the soil of language. Sir Edward Tylor, a British anthropologist, was one of those who first defined culture，in Primitive Culture (1871). His definition was that “Culture is complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” Tylor’s definition has continually been the basis of most anthropological conception of culture. Culture is also a historical phenomenon. Each generation inherits the culture established by its forefathers and makes its own contributions to the development of culture; so different nations have different cultures. Universality between Chinese and English cultures and similarity in the thinking modes make people associate the same animal words with the same or similar figurative meanings. But differences between these two cultures always lead to different association, i.e. Chinese and English people have different figurative meanings to same animal words or use different animal association vehicles to express same or similar figurative meanings.
English and Chinese are rich in animal words as association vehicles, so in this paper the author mainly compares figurative meanings of animal words in English and Chinese culture and indicates translation techniques.
2. Animal words as association vehicles
It is well known that there are many figurative expressions in English and Chinese, especially animal metaphors. However, because of different histories, social backgrounds and cultures, the connotations of animal words are different. If Chinese people and English people want to use the figurative way to express the same tenor, they would use the same or different association vehicles, so the corresponding relationships between association vehicles and figurative meanings are also different.
2.1 Same animal association vehicles and similar figurative meanings
As all human beings live in the similar environment, the Chinese people and English people nearly have the same knowledge of animals. Therefore, they have the same or similar figurative meanings to animal words. For example, English people would say, “He is a fox.” Similarly, Chinese people can understand the meaning of the sentence “He is a fox.” in Chinese “他是一只狐狸。” This example shows that in English “fox” can be used to describe somebody who is cunning and dishonest. This example indicates that different languages and cultures endow “fox’’ the same figurative meanings.
The following animal words have the similar figurative meanings both in English and Chinese. “Sheep(羊) or lamb(羔羊)” can be considered as a kind of animal with a sweet and tame temper. As a result, the “sheep(羊) or lamb(羔羊)” is used to show the character with a sweet and tame temper both in English and Chinese, for example: “as lovely as a little sheep (像小羊羔一样可爱)”.
Wolf(狼) is a kind of greedy, savage and cruel beast, so in Chinese there exist such expressions: “狼心狗肺”, “豺狼当道”, “如狼似虎”, “狼吞虎咽”, “狼狈为奸”, “狼子野心”. Similarly, the greedy, sinister, dishonest character of wolf also displays vividly and incisively in western culture, e.g.: “a wolf in a sheep’s clothing or a wolf in lamb’s skin (披着羊皮的狼)”; “wake a sleeping wolf (自找麻烦)”; “hold a wolf by the ears (骑虎难下，进退两难)”;“keep the wolf from the door (勉强度日)”.
In addition, when “wolf” is used to refer to a person, it means “a man who charms women so as to use them for his own pleasure’’. Therefore, in English there is an idiom “a wolf whistle(挑逗口哨)”. In Chinese, there is also such an expression “色狼”.
“Ass(驴)” in English and Chinese has the same connotation and figurative meaning “foolish, stupid”. In Chinese the expression “笨驴” is used to indicate a fool or an idiot. In English, most of the set phrases, idioms and proverbs including the word “ass’’ all imply the meaning of “foolish”, e.g. “ass in grain (十足的大傻瓜)”; “an ass in a lion’s skin (from Aesop’s Fables, 冒充聪明人的傻瓜)”; “all asses wag their ears (谚语：驴子摇耳朵，傻瓜装聪明)”; “asses’ bridge (笨人难过的桥)”; “act the ass (做糊涂事)”; “make an ass of oneself (做蠢事)”; “sell you ass (口语：不要这样呆头呆脑)”.
The word “dove” in Chinese and English shares the same meaning, and symbolizes for peace. We regard the dove as “peace dove”. In some grand celebrations, we often see the scene of taking the doves away, standing for cherished desire for peace world of all of us.
The following are some other familiar examples: as free as a bird (像鸟儿一样自由); as ugly as a toad (像癞蛤蟆一样丑); as busy as a bee (像蜜蜂一样忙碌); as slow as a nail (像蜗牛一样慢).
This kind of terms with same or similar figurative meanings show that in different cultures there does exist something in common, which reflects the commonness of different national cultures.
2.2 Same animal association vehicles and different figurative meanings
Different living conditions have caused varied states of mind and ways of thinking, so Chinese and English people have different ideas and attitudes to some animals such as dragon, dogs, etc. And their figurative meanings in both languages and cultures differ greatly.
2.2.1 Some animal words with commendatory figurative meaning in Chinese, but with derogatory figurative meaning in English
We must be very familiar with the word “dragon (龙)”, which is completely opposite in Chinese and English. “Dragon (龙)”is not a real animal but an imaginary one. In China, dragon is the symbol of the Chinese nation, especially in the ancient time, people worshiped dragon to beg for rain. And the Chinese feudal emperors were often referred to as sons of dragons (龙子), wearing clothes with designs of dragons (龙袍). And also the Chinese all call themselves descendents of the dragon（龙的传人）and are very proud of being the descendents of the dragon. However, in Western people’s minds, the dragon is some evil monster with a large tail with wings and claws, breathing out fire and smoke. It symbolizes evil.
“Monkey (猴子)” has different figurative meaning in Chinese and English languages. In Chinese, “monkey” is often likened to a smart and agile person, with commendatory sense. The Chinese people often jokingly call clever and cute children “little monkey”. But, if you praise a western child “You are like a little monkey.”, he will be angry, thinking that you curse him. Because in English, “little monkey,” means “a troublesome playful child”. And “monkey” is often likened to a person with a whole bag of tricks, e.g. “The man is as tricky as a monkey. (那人诡计多端，极为狡猾。)” Therefore, in English, expressions with “monkey” have derogatory meanings, e.g. “monkey business (捣鬼，骗人的勾当)”; “monkey around (闲荡，瞎弄)”; “monkey meat (美俚：劣等牛肉)”; “suck the monkey (英俚：酗酒)”.
Let’s take a look at the word “petrel (海燕)”. In English the petrel is considered as an omen of disaster. The Longman Dictionary of English-Chinese offers us the explanations: “A stormy petrel is a person whose presence excites discontentment, quarrelling, etc. in a social group.” The reason for such a dislike is that they think petrel is the symbol for disaster. However, in China the word “petrel” is associated with braving hardship and adversity, advancing with perseverance and courage. The spirit is well reflected in the poem petrel written by Gorky, a famous Russian writer.
To English people, if a magpie (喜鹊) flies near a window, it is a symbol of bad luck. There are two explanations in The Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary: (a) person who collects or hoards things (爱收藏或贮藏东西的人), (b) person who chatters a lot (爱饶舌的人). All these explanations are figurative with derogatory meanings. On the contrary, a magpie is a symbol of good luck in China. If a magpie sings in a tree near houses, people would think some happy things would happen. So Chinese people often say, “Magpie sings, happy thing comes.”
What’s about the animal word “fish”? “fish” and “鱼” has quite different cultural figurative meanings in English and Chinese. In English “fish” has derogatory meaning that refers to bad things and persons, e.g.: “a poor fish (可怜虫)”; “a loose fish (生活放荡的女人)”; “fish in the air (水中捞月)”. In Chinese the letter “鱼” and “余” are homophones. Therefore, in the important festivals such as Spring Festival, Chinese people would like to use “fish” as an indispensable dish to symbolize “abundance”.
In China, “elephant (象)” is a mascot. Many places in China are named for the letter “象” such as “象山” in Zhejiang province, “象州”, “象鼻山” in Guangxi province, “象河” in Tibet, etc. “Elephant” also symbolizes status. For example, in remote antiquity, the noble ladies wore clothes with designs of elephants (象服); The emperors rode on elephants. The “elephant” is doted by Chinese people because of the Buddhist legends. It is said that the Buddhist patriarch was the reincarnation of white elephant. On the contrary, in English white elephant (白象) is likened to things that are useless and often expensive. The allusion is originated from a folk story that in Siam (now Thailand), the king would give a white elephant as a present to a subject that he did not like. The subject would have to spend all his money on looking after the rare animal. Therefore, there exist such expressions in English, “elephantine (笨拙)”, “elephant humor (蹩脚的幽默)”, “elephant task (累赘的活儿)”.
2.2.2 Some animal words with commendatory figurative meaning in English, but with derogatory figurative meaning in Chinese
Let’s take our familiar animal word “dog” for example. The dog is very interesting and closely related with people. Most of the “dog” expressions possess a commendatory sense or at least a neuter sense in English. It is all right to refer to certain people as “big dog (重要人物)”, “top dog (优胜者)”, “lucky dog (幸运儿)”, etc. in English. “To help a lame dog over the stile” means “to help someone in difficulty”. “To let sleeping dogs lie” means “to make no trouble” or “not to disturb people”. “Every dog has its day,” means “every person will some day succeed or become fortunate.” Such usage does not contain derogatory meaning. But figures of speech like these are not proper in Chinese as the word “狗” in most Chinese phrases is associated with some derogatory meanings, as is reflected in sayings like “狗胆包天、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗腿子、狗血喷头、狼心狗肺、狗眼看人低、丧家之犬、狗嘴吐不出象牙”, etc., even though most Chinese now think the dog is man’s faithful friend.
However, in some cases the word “dog” may have derogatory sense in English, as is shown in the following examples: “yellow dog (卑鄙之人)”, “dirty dog (龌龊之人)”, “sly dog (阴险之人)”, “dead dog (无用的人)”, and some vulgar languages: “son of bitch (狗杂种)”, “you dog (狗东西)”, “that cur (小杂种狗)”, etc. [10]
“Owl (猫头鹰)” is very popular with the western. The Greeks use “owl” to stand for Athens, which is famous for its many owls. And it’s said that Athena, the woman patron saint was given an owls as her mark. It symbolizes wisdom, calmness, gravity and steadiness. In dispute among birds and beats, it is the owl that they go to for advice, and we can see such idiom “as wise as an owl”. If we use “owlish” to describe somebody, we want to say he is clever or serious, e.g. “Patrick peered owlishly at us through his glasses. (帕特里克透过他的眼镜严肃而机智地审视着我们。) ” But in Chinese, the figurative meaning of the word “owl” is quite different. “Owl” is described as the devil, ill omen and evil. People are afraid of seeing an owl, especially seeing its entering the house, so there are proverbs which go like these: “夜猫子进宅，无事不来”; “夜猫子抖擞翅，大小有点事儿”. The mere sight of an owl or the sound of its hooting might cause people to draw back in fear. [11]
To Chinese people and English people, “bear” has quite different figurative meanings. To Chinese people “bear” means “cowardly and timid” or “stupid”, such as “笨熊”, “瞧那熊样”, etc. However, in English, people use “bear” to refer to those persons having special ability, for instance, “He is a bear at music. (他是音乐天才。)”
Another example is an insect---cricket (蟋蟀), which, however, means totally different to both the Chinese and the English. In Chinese culture, “cricket” refers to a small, brown, jumping insect which makes a shrill sound by rubbing its front wings together. It is often used to express “grief” and “desolation”, which is reflected in the following example “独申旦而不寐兮，哀蟋蟀之宵征” written by Song Yu in the book of 《九辩》. But in English, since Shakespeare used “as merry as crickets” in Henry IV, the English and American people have used “cricket” to symbolize joy all the time. For example, C.Kingley once wrote in his Two Years Ago that “I have not had all the luck I expected, but… am as merry as a cricket. (虽然我没有得到想要的一切好运，但我却很高兴。)” [12]
2.3 Different animal association vehicles and similar figurative meanings
Different animal words have similar cultural connotations in English and Chinese languages and people use different animal words to express similar meanings. Even though the animal association vehicles are different, they have similar figurative meanings.
For instance, agriculture is the foundation of China’s economic development, so the cattle (牛) play a great role in Chinese culture. There are so many expressions which use “cattle” as association vehicles, such as “壮实如牛”, “牛气冲天”, “象老黄牛一样辛勤工作”, “过着牛马不如的生活”. However, in the Middle Ages, horse was not only the inseparable part of Knights’ lives, but also the animal kept and used by the imperial families. So English people give horse many good figurative meanings such as “as strong as a horse”, “to work like a horse”, “get on one’s high horse”. Similarly, Great Britain is an island country, so fishery is important. Therefore, there exists such figurative expression “to drink like a fish (牛饮)”. [13]
In English, there are many figurative expressions using the word “horse” as association vehicles, e.g. “change horse (换马)” is likened to “change groups or leaders (换班子或领导人)”; “from the horse’s mouth (第一手的)”; “talk horse (吹牛)”, etc.
To Chinese people, “tiger” is referred to as the king of animals and stands for power, vigor and bravery. So there are many expressions with the letter “虎”: “英雄虎胆”, “龙争虎斗”, “藏龙卧虎”, “如虎添翼”, “虎将”, etc. But in English “tiger” symbolizes cruelty. The western regards “lion” as the king of animals. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language interprets “a person felt to be like a lion especially in courage, ferocity, dignity or dominance (一个象是狮子的人，特别指勇气、凶猛、威严或权势方面)”. We use “as bold as a lion” to describe a brave person. The lion enjoys high prestige. In addition, English people regard lion as the national emblem of Great Britain. “A literary lion” is referred to a famous person in the field of literature. [14]
“Snake” and “中山狼” share the same figurative meaning in English and Chinese, which are both likened to a person who returns hate for love. The only difference is that Chinese language uses “中山狼” as association vehicle, but English language uses “snake” as association vehicle.
For generation the fable of “中山狼” has circulated among the people. The story is that: Zhao Jianzi shot at a wolf in the wood. The wolf escaped and asked master Dongguo for help. Mr. Dongguo was softhearted and hid the wounded wolf in his bag to keep it from being caught by Zhao Jianzi. But the wolf wanted to eat him. So the figurative meaning “恩将仇报” of “中山狼” is created.
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