[Abstract] Language communication is an important method to maintain social relationship, so people often use the indirect or pleasant expressions in the place of those considered unpleasant, rude or offensive in communication. It is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. It reflects some kinds of corresponding cultural traditions. This paper mainly focuses on the ways of expression, the major function and the social influence of euphemism in English. And the first part elaborates upon the different expressions of euphemism in English, divided into four parts: figure of speech, semantic method, the variety of pronunciation and spelling form and grammar. And then it makes study the appliance of euphemism on three functions: avoidance, courtesy, disguise in social life, and discusses the positive and negative influences of euphemism. To know these could help us to understand the mode of thinking, social values, moral concepts, and cultural traditions in English-speaking country, and could improve our language communicative ability.
[Key words]: Euphemism, application, social influence, positive, negative
【摘 要】 语言交际是人类以维系社会关系的重要手段，因而人们在交际中通常避免使用引起双方不快从而损害双方关系的语言，而是采取迂回曲折的措施来表达思想，交流信息，它不仅是种语言现象，而且是社会现象和文化现象。委婉语言体现了相应的社会文化传统。本文主要阐述了法语委婉语的构成措施以及它的社会作用，并着重从修辞手段，语义手段，法语论文网站，构词手段及语法手段对委婉语言作了较全面的略论，并对委婉语在交际中的语用功能和表达方式做了一些研讨，法语论文范文，从委婉语的“避讳”功能，“礼貌”功能和“掩饰”功能三个方面研讨了委婉语在社会生活中的应用，了解委婉语在应用中的积极影响和消极影响, 有助于我们更深入的了解法语国家人们的思维方式、社会价值观、道德观以及文化风俗，关于提高自身言语交际功能是十分必要的。 【关键词】 委婉语； 应用； 社会作用; 积极；消极 1. Introduction
Euphemism is originally from Greek, meaning, “speak with gook words”. “eu” means “well or sounding well”; “pheme” means “speech”. Its definition in Oxford English Dictionary is “(example of the) use of pleasant, mild, or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”[1]
The appearance of euphemism is based on two reasons: one aims to take the place of “taboo”. When giving up a taboo word, people will find another new one to take the place of it, which creates a euphemism. The other aims to avoid offensiveness during the communication. It is a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is described or referred to by a milder term.
In English language, euphemism is widely used in the daily communications. In order to achieve the aim of “taboo”, it is used to avoid the unpleasant thing; in order to achieve the aim of “politeness”, it is used to avoid the inelegant things, which are the two social psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is one of the important parts of figure of speech. It is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. Euphemism in use differs from person to person, from profession to profession, even from class to class , That’s why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of English culture. To grasp the English euphemism can not only help us open our eyes, but strengthen our ability of reading comprehension. This paper aims to discuss the application of euphemism in English and to make acknowledge of its social influence, which could help us use euphemism in a correct way. 2. Ways to express euphemism
2.1. Figure of speech
2.1.1. Metonymy.
That is to use the general words to take the place of the concrete words. “Passed away” which refers to “dead” belongs to metonymy. It can be divided into the following forms: 1) to use the container to take the place of the things in the container. For example: “to be fond of the bottle” is a euphemism for “liking to drink”. 2) To use the entirety instead of the part. For example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “limb” refers to “leg”. For some special occasions, the part can be used instead of the entirety. In Australian English “an old hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner”. 3) To use the tools to take the place of the objects. For example, “pick” is a tool of prying the lock. It can refer to “thief”. 4) To use raw materials to take the place of finished products. For instance, “poppy” is a kind of flower, but it also refers to “opium”. 5) To use characteristics to take the place of objects. For example, “hellow” is a greeting word, and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) To use proper words to replace the objects. For example, “napoleon” is a French golden coin on which there is Napoleon’s head portrait. “Borstal” is a name of countryside in Kent in Britain. It can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”.
Sometimes, some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words; people gradually forget their euphemistic identities. They are not used in terms of euphemisms but have their own independent meanings. For instance, take above-mentioned “poppy”, now if you look up this word in the dictionary, you can find the meaning of “opium”, it has lost its euphemistic function. And, if you do not know the background, you can not know the meaning of “Napoleon” and “Borstal”. Therefore, we can see the importance of knowing the background of English culture. It can help you a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemism and make good use of it.
2.1.2. Metaphor
To use metaphor can easily avoid the offensive things. For example, wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law, which, though conducted by rules, does not meddle unduly with a gentleman’s private affairs. (O. Henry, The Cop and the Anthem) “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”, Many euphemisms for “death” were created by way of metaphor, such as going to his long home, to be home and free, to go to sleep, to sleep the long (or eternal, never-ending) sleep, to rest in peace, to be at rest, to go to Heaven (or Paradise), to join one’s ancestors, to be gathered to one’s fathers, to join the immortals. More examples are: aged→sunset years, to be poor→to be pinched, to have improper sexual intercourse with girls(especially maiden) →to deflower; to degenerate→to go astray; breast→milk bottles; catamenia→the red flag; to be pregnant→to be on the nest; the money of bribery→grease; to bribe→to grease somebody’s palm; handcuffs→bracelets.
2.1.3 Personification
People’s names are often used to replace taboo words. For example, “Big Harry” refers to “heroin” because “Harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. In 19th century, it was called “ my aunt Jones”, “Mrs. Jones”, “Sir John”, “Sir Harry”, “the Henry”, while in 20th century, it was called “jakes”, “john” etc. But the latter color of personification becomes weak. The first letter can be written in small letter. People just use it as a common noun. In fact, they have lost the euphemistic function. There are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) My friend has come. 2) I have a visitor. 3) My cousins/country cousins have come. 4) My auntie/grandmother has come to stay. 5) Little sister is here. 6) I’ve got painters in. 7) the cardinal has come.
2.1.4. Analogy
In the euphemisms for occupation people often use analogy, which makes the humble name more elegant , For example, “chef” is a euphemism for “cook”. It is borrowed from French word “chef de cuisine”. “Beautician” refers to “hairdresser”; “garbologist” refers to “garbage collector”; “mortician” refers to “undertaker”. There also appeared some beautiful names for barbershop: hair salon, beauty parlour, and stylist parlour.
2.1.5. Ellipsis
That is to omit the offensive words while speaking, such as to be expecting (a baby), to have (sexual) relations with somebody, to take precautions (against pregnancy), to depart (from this world). Of course, such phrases should be put into a certain context, which can express the meaning of euphemisms.
2.1.6. Periphrasis
It is an expression of beating around the bush. Though it is a muddled acting, its aim is to avoid offending others, and to be more polite. If someone asked a woman whether she was knitting a tiny garment, he meant that he wondered whether she was pregnant. Such way of speaking is humorous, sweet and agreeable, such as to die→to close one’s eyes, to expire, to breathe one’s last; to defecate and to urinate→to wash one’s hands, to ease or relieve oneself, to do one’s business; to court→to go walking; to be pregnant→to eat for two; lavatory→washroom, cloakroom; fart→wind from behind; women’s underclothes→unmentionables; trousers→nether garments; ask you to go away→call your carriage for you; to dismiss→to give somebody the sack; to be in prison→to live at the government‘s expense. Teachers often use this expression to avoid the students’ and their parents’ awkwardness. For example, laziness is called “needing ample supervision in order to work well”; “cheat” is described as “needing help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play”; “lies” is called “showing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material”; “steal” is called “needing help in learning to respect the property rights of others”; “be a bully” refers to “having qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them democratically”; “dirty” is called “ be lack of proper health habits”.
2.2. Semantic method
2.2.1. Synonym
For example, “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”,“defecate” replaces “shift” and “urine” replaces “piss” . And “mad” is replaced by “crazy”, “insane”, and “lunatic”. Such euphemism aims to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term.
2.2.2. Negation
Such euphemism uses the contrary term to express the same meaning, and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo and make people more understandable and comfortable. We could call stupid people unwise people. “A fat chance” means “a slim chance”and “find words” stands for “bad words”
2.2.3. Vague words and expressions
That is to make the harsher or offensive words more general. For example, if somebody has some mental problems, we can express it like this: His roof leaks a little; he has a screw loose/missing; he is not at home. There are other examples which use vague expressions, such as disease→trouble, problem; to come across an unfortunate thing→to have an accident; V. D. (venereal disease) →secret disease; to live together illegally→to cohabit; intrauterine device→ring; to rape somebody→to do violence to somebody; prostitute→a woman of the streets, a woman of a certain class, a painted woman, a lady of the night girl; to entertain whorehouse visitors→to see company; whorehouse→house; a squint→an obliquity of vision; a man of bad taste→a man of doubtful taste; strike→industrial action; the poor→the underprivileged, the disadvantaged; in debt→in difficulties; buttocks→behind, bottom, backsides; homosexual→queer; sexual intercourse→intimacy; to be killed→to be put to sleep.
2.2.4. Loan words
Because from the period of Renaissance, Latin, Greek, and French are considered as cultured words. People consider that those languages are more elegant, tactful and ambiguous. In the early 19th century, no matter in Britain or America, people used French word “enceinte” instead of English word “pregnant”. It is popular till now because the former is more elegant, tactful and ambiguous. English borrows words not only from French but also from other languages in many kinds of ways to create its own euphemism. For example, “lavatory” was borrowed from Latin word “lavatorium”, but it lost its meaning of euphemism because of long- time using. Therefore, people borrowed another euphemism from French “toilette” which was respelled into “toilet”, and it became the most popular euphemism referring to lavatory. French words “chemise” and “lingerie” are euphemisms for “underwear” and “blouse” respectively. “sushi” was borrowed from Japanese “すし”. Its original meaning is a kind of Japanese food. People put it into a phrase “a little tongue sushi”, which means “tongue kissing”. The above words mostly belong to the common vocabulary. In addition, euphemisms also borrow some science and technological words and academic words that are cold, clinic and antiseptic. Such words are mainly from Latin and Greek. For example, Latin word “coitus” is a euphemism for “fuck”; Native words “shit” and “piss” are all dirty words, while Latin word “defecation” and Greek word “urination” are all accepted easily.
2.2.5. Understatement
That is to state some serious things in a temperate way in order to avoid being awkward and strident . For example, “She was neither quite pretty nor quiet plain.” “Plain” is used instead of “ugly”; “My cousin Jimmy was a bit soft in the head.” “Soft in the head” means “mad”; “The boy used to take things without permission and has just been out of the rehabilitation home in the country.” (steal, detention home); the period of economic depression→a period of economic adjustment; money for bribery→kickback, commission; poor families→low income families; falling behind→less advanced; retarded children→less able children; an ugly girl→a plain or homely girl; disabled→physically handicapped; to be ill→to look off color, to feel unwell or uncomfortable; treatment→health care; old age→advanced in age.
2.3. The variety of pronunciation and spelling form
English is an alphabetic writing. The variation of phonetic form can avoid the original conception in a certain degree and achieve the purpose of euphemism. 1) Compounding: gezunda (goes under). 2) Acronym: DA (drug addict), KG (know gambler), B.O.T (balance of time), J.D (juvenile delinquent), P and Q (peace and quiet). 3) Back-formation: burgle (burgler) 4) chipping: vamp (vampire), homo (homosexual), gents (Gentlemen’s Room), and ladies (Ladies Room)[10].
There is an interesting example: “laboratory”, the original stress was on the first syllable. But it sounded similarly to “lavatory”. In order to avoid the unpleasant connection, the stress was moved to the second syllable. Such phenomenon is called Assonance. That is to make use of or to create words, which have the same or similar pronunciations with euphemistic words in order to achieve the purpose of euphemism. Therefore, in English there is a way of personification to express “catamenia”: The captain is at home. It is because “captain” is assonant with the medical science term “catamenia”. In oral English, “pee” is used to refer to “piss”, which has the same reason.
2.4. Grammar
That is to use past tense, negative sentence to express euphemism. For example, I can see by your face that you don’t think that was wise. The negative form means “thinking that was foolish”; “How do we feel today?” Using “we” instead of “you” shows the moderation and geniality. “I wanted to…” “I wondered…” often take the place of “I want to…” “I wonder…” Such expression is often used in oral English.[11] |
