网范文：“The cognitive modules ” 亚特兰大和科恩(1998)提出了一个免疫功能和过程的认知模型,一种范式结合认知模式行为类似于中枢神经系统。这篇社会范文讲述的是对于认知模块，英语毕业论文，这项工作是在一个非常传统的想法中提出的，对于免疫系统的认知属性。从亚特兰大/科恩的角度来看,可以减少抗原的意义，反应抗原生成的类型。即抗原的意义是免疫系统的功能定义的响应。抗原的意义是明显的免疫反应产生的类型,不仅抗原是否为被受体。
反应的类型定义的意义确实是一个响应关系，科恩的认知范式的免疫系统。免疫系统可以用不同的措施对一个给定的抗原。因此我们观察的特定反应是内部流程的结果考虑。下面的范文进行讲述。
Abstract
Atlan and Cohen (1998) have proposed an informationtheoretic cognitive model of immune function and process, a paradigm incorporating cognitive pattern recognition-and-response behaviors analogous to those of the central nervous system. This work follows in a very long tradition of speculation on the cognitive properties of the immune system (e.g. Tauber, 1998; Podolsky and Tauber, 1998; Grossman, 1989, 1992, 1993a, b, 2017). From the Atlan/Cohen perspective, the meaning of an antigen can be reduced to the type of response the antigen generates. That is, the meaning of an antigen is functionally defined by the response of the immune system.
The meaning of an antigen to the system is discernible in the type of immune response produced, not merely whether or not the antigen is perceived by the receptor repertoire. Because the meaning is defined by the type of response there is indeed a response repertoire and not only a receptor repertoire. To account for immune interpretation Cohen (1992, 2017) has reformulated the cognitive paradigm for the immune system. The immune system can respond to a given antigen in various ways, it has ‘options.’ Thus the particular response we observe is the outcome of internal processes of weighing and integrating information about the antigen. In contrast to Burnet’s view of the immune response as a simple reflex, it is seen to exercise cognition by the interpolation of a level of information processing between the antigen stimulus and the immune response.
A cognitive immune system organizes the information borne by the antigen stimulus within a given context and creates a format suitable for internal processing; the antigen and its context are transcribed internally into the ‘chemical language’ of the immune system. The cognitive paradigm suggests a language metaphor to describe immune communication by a string of chemical signals. This metaphor is apt because the human and immune languages can be seen to manifest several similarities such as syntax and abstraction. Syntax, for example, enhances both linguistic and immune meaning. Although individual words and even letters can have their own meanings, an unconnected subject or an unconnected predicate will tend to mean less than does the sentence generated by their connection. The immune system creates a ‘language’ by linking two ontogenetically different classes of molecules in a syntactical fashion. One class of molecules are the T and B cell receptors for antigens. These molecules are not inherited, but are somatically generated in each individual. The other class of molecules responsible for internal information processing is encoded in the individual’s germline. Meaning, the chosen type of immune response, is the outcome of the concrete connection between the antigen subject and the germline predicate signals. The transcription of the antigens into processed peptides embedded in a context of germline ancillary signals constitutes the functional ‘language’ of the immune system. Despite the logic of clonal selection, the immune system does not respond to antigens as they are, but to abstractions of antigens-incontext.
Tumor control
We propose that the next cognitive submodule after the immune system is a tumor control mechanism which may include ‘immune surveillance’, but clearly transcends it. Nunney (1999) has explored cancer occurrence as a function of animal size, suggesting that in larger animals, whose lifespan grows as about the 4/10 power of their cell count, prevention of cancer in rapidly proliferating tissues becomes more difficult in proportion to size. Cancer control requires the development of additional mechanisms and systems to address tumorigenesis as body size increases – a synergistic effect of cell number and organism longevity. Nunney concludes “This pattern may represent a real barrier to the evolution of large, long-lived animals and predicts that those that do evolve ... have recruited additional controls [over those of smaller animals] to prevent cancer.”
In particular, different tissues may have evolved markedly different tumor control strategies. All of these, however, are likely to be energetically expensive, permeated with different complex signaling strategies, and subject to a multiplicity of reactions to signals, including those related to psychosocial stress. Forlenza and Baum (2017) explore the effects of stress on the full spectrum of tumor control, ranging from DNA damage and control, to apoptosis, immune surveillance, and mutation rate. Elsewhere (R. Wallace et al., 2017) we argue that this elaborate tumor control strategy, at least in large animals, must be at least as cognitive as the immune system itself, which is one of its components: some comparison must be made with an internal picture of a ‘healthy’ cell, and a choice made as to response: none, attempt DNA repair, trigger programmed cell death, engage in full-blown immune attack. This is, from the Atlan/Cohen perspective, the essence of cognition.
Emotion
Thayer and Lane (2017) summarize the case for what can be described as a cognitive emotional process. Emotions, in their view, are an integrative index of individual adjustment to changing environmental demands, an organismal response to an environmental event that allows rapid mobilization of multiple subsystems. Emotions are the moment-to-moment output of a continuous sequence of behavior, organized around biologically important functions. These ‘lawful’ sequences have been termed ‘behavioral systems’ by Timberlake (1994). Emotions are self-regulatory responses that allow the efficient coordination of the organism for goal-directed behavior. Specific emotions imply specific eliciting stimuli, specific action tendencies including selective attention to relevant stimuli, and specific reinforcers.
When the system works properly, it allows for flexible adaptation of the organism to changing environmental demands, so that an emotional response represents a selection of an appropriate response and the inhibition of other less appropriate responses from a more or less broad behavioral repertoire of possible responses. Such ‘choice’, we will show, leads directly to something closely analogous to the Atlan and Cohen language metaphor. Damasio (1998) concludes that emotion is the most complex expression of homeostatic regulatory systems. The results of emotion serve the purpose of survival even in nonminded organisms, operating along dimensions of approach or aversion, of appetition or withdrawal.
Emotions protect the subject organism by avoiding predators or scaring them away, or by leading the organism to food and sex. Emotions often operate as a basic mechanism for making decisions without the labors of reason, that is, without resorting to deliberated considerations of facts, options, outcomes, and rules of logic. In humans learning can pair emotion with facts which describe the premises of a situation, the option taken relative to solving the problems inherent in a situation, and perhaps most importantly, the outcomes of choosing a certain option, both immediately and in the future. The pairing of emotion and fact remains in memory in such a way that when the facts are considered in deliberate reasoning when a similar situation is revisited, the paired emotion or some aspect of it can be reactivated. The recall, according to Damasio, allows emotion to exert its pairwise qualification effect, either as a conscious signal or as nonconscious bias, or both, In both types of action the emotions and the machinery underlying them play an important regulatory role in the life of the organism. This higher order role for emotion is still related to the needs of survival, albeit less apparently. Thayer and Friedman (2017) argue, from a dynamic systems perspective, that failure of what they term ‘inhibitory processes’ which, among other things, direct emotional responses to environmental signals, is an important aspect of psychological and other disorder. Sensitization and inhibition, they claim, ‘sculpt’ the behavior of an organism to meet changing environmental demands. When these inhibitory processes are dysfunctional – choice fails – pathology appears at numerous levels of system function, from the cellular to the cognitive.
‘Rational thought’
Although the Cartesian dichotomy between ‘rational thought’ and ‘emotion’ may be increasingly suspect, nonetheless humans, like many other animals, do indeed conduct individual rational cognitive decision-making as most of us would commonly understand it. Various forms of dementia involve characteristic patterns of degradation in that ability. 5. Sociocultural network Humans, however, are particularly noted for a hypersociality which inevitably enmeshes us all in group processes of decision, i.e. collective cognitive behavior within a social network, tinged by an embedding shared culture. For humans, culture is truly fundamental. Durham (1991) argues that genes and culture are two distinct but interacting systems of inheritance within human populations. Information of both kinds has influence, actual or potential, over behaviors, which creates a real and 9 unambiguous symmetry between genes and phenotypes on the one hand, and culture and phenotypes, on the other. Genes and culture are best represented as two parallel lines or tracks of hereditary influence on phenotypes.()
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