2. Definition and classification of nonverbal communication
There are various definitions for nonverbal communication among different scholars. According to Knapp (P41) the phrase nonverbal communication refers to communication effect by means other than words (assuming words are the verbal element). When defining nonverbal communication, Samovar and Porter propose that “nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver”. In this definition, the role of the environment, the message value of nonverbal stimuli and the communication setting are emphasized as three important factors in nonverbal communication. (P41) In short, nonverbal means for communication, which is considered as “silent language”, expresses meanings or feelings without using words.
As different linguists describe nonverbal communication in different dimensions, there is no general agreement in classification as yet. Here we only propose some of the common topics most communication theorists address themselves to:
“Nonverbal communication consists of all signaling systems that do not use words.”(P181)
1) body modes of nonverbal communication(kinesics): posture, gestures, eye contact, facial expressions, appearance, smell, shifts in skin color, uses of clothing and body decoration, body orientation, any other movement of any other part of the body;
2) space language(body distance or proxemics): body touch and body distance;
3) paralanguage(voice modulation): speed, pitch, volume, pause, intonation, etc;
4) time language: time orientation (past, present, and future), monochromic (M-time) and polychromic (P-time);
5) environmental communication (interrelationship between people and their environments): architecture, object, color, lighting, odors etc;
6) communication of genetic characteristics, which are considered by some scholars as nonverbal communication;
7) various art forms and media such as painting, architecture, music, film, ballet, and mime 3. Functions of nonverbal behavior in communication
In some types of communication people express more nonverbally than verbally. “One study done in the United States showed that in the communication of attitudes, 93% of the message was transmitted by the tone of the voice and by facial expressions, whereas only 7% of the speaker’s attitude was transmitted by words.”(P122) Nonverbal communication is significant in human interaction because it is usually responsible for first impression. Think for a moment for how often your first judgments are based on the color of a person’s skin or the manner in which he or she is dressed. More important, those initial messages usually influence the perception of everything else that follows.
Nonverbal behaviors and verbal communication interact in communication process. For simplicity, nonverbal communication serves to repeat, complement, reinforce, substitute, regulate or even contradict our verbal behavior. (P137-139)
3.1Repeating
Nonverbal communication can simply repeat what was said verbally. For instance, verbal statements of agreement or disagreement are often accompanied by a nod or shake of the head to convey positive or negative feelings. We might hold up our hand in the gesture that signifies a person to stop at the same time we actually use the word “stop”. Or we might point in a certain direction after we have just said (when tell a person the way to the railway station, you generally add a little information by pointing in the proper direction.). These could be considered repetition because they indicate the same meaning as the verbal messages.
3.2Complementing
Closely related to repeating is complementing. Although messages that repeat can stand alone, complementing generally adds more information to messages. Nonverbal signals can modify or elaborate on verbal messages. The actors or actresses of comedy or skit or short crosstalk are good at performing body language to make their performance lively and more easily attract the attention of audiences. If you tell your friend that you have no money to lend him, you may turn out your pockets to show your sincere regret. You can tell someone that you are pleased with his or her performance, but this message takes on extra meaning if you pat the person on the shoulder at the same time. These important actions help us to complement, complete our verbal behavior. You can see how an apology becomes more forceful if your face, as well as your words, is saying, “I’m sorry.”
This function of nonverbal communication indicates that nonverbal communication is supplementary to verbal behavior in communication. If it separates from verbal language, the message conveyed by nonverbal symbols will fail to be understood which results in failure of performing normal human communication. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill stressed the art of speech. Once in his speech, he said, “The level of our life now has exceeded any time in history, for we eat so much.” To this point, he stopped on purpose looking at the audiences for a while. Then he continued with the finger pointing to his huge stomach, “this is powerful evidence.” Churchill used nonverbal approach twice to assist verbal language. At first, he intentionally used pause to attract the attention of the mass; then he skillfully used the body language----pointing his beer belly to receive vivid effect. (P17) So only when linguistic communication system mixes with nonverbal communication can it form a complete communicative system. If it breaks away from the cooperation and assistance of nonverbal behavior, it is hard to attain effective goal of communication.
3.3Reinforcing
Nonverbal signals may be used to emphasize a portion of the verbal message. People frequently use movements of the head and hands such as nods, blinks, squints, and shrugs, to help accent or punctuate the verbal message. If you say “I love you” to someone you care about, a hug or kiss is usually followed. Reinforcing can also be achieved by changing the pitch or stress on a word or group of words. Our entire meaning relies more heavily on words that are accented. For instance:
(1) I want to talk with him. (The sentence meaning lays emphasis on the person who wants to talk.)
(2) I want to talk with him. (The sentence meaning relies on the action that the person wants to perform.)
(3) I want to talk with him. (The sentence meaning puts stress on the conversational partner with whom the person wants to communicate.)
3.4Substituting
We use substitution in nonverbal communication when we perform some action instead of speaking. Quite a few nonverbal messages are commonly use to take the place of words. If you see a very special friend, you are apt to enlarge the size of your smile and throw open your arms to greet him or her, which is a substitute for all the words it would take to convey the same feeling. If a group of people is boisterous, you might place your index finger to your lips as an alternative to saying, “Please calm down so that I can speak.” Sometimes, when we are too sad or excited to say anything, we just keep silent. Our silence may replace any verbal messages. In some situation verbal words are unnecessary for silence at the moment surpasses words. (P12) Before Iraq was intruded by the US, Iraqi ex-president Saddam Hussein fired toward the sky in the presence of the mass to show the anger and the decision of fighting against the US. (from TV report) The action the president showed would be more powerful than words that called on the Iraqi people to counterattack American troops. For deaf-mutes, born to be unable to communicate verbally like normal people, the sign language or gesture provides opportunity for them to communicate with others in the silent world. In this case, nonverbal communication replaces the function of verbal one.
For nonverbal communication to act as substitution, it must be interpreted in specific culture. Here are some examples: If we try to use our culture’s nonverbal substitutes in another culture, misunderstandings may occur. Arab men often greet by kissing on both cheeks. In Buddhism countries of Southeast Asia like Thailand, people greet with both hands closed in front of chest. In Japan, men greet by bowing, and in the United States, people shake hands. Americans who say “I” by pointing to their chests would not be understood in Japan, where “I” is symbolized by pointing to one’s nose.
3.5Regulating
We often regulate and manage communication by using some form of nonverbal behavior: we nod our head in agreement to indicate to our communication partner that we agree and that he or she should continue talking; or we remain silent for a moment and let the silence send the message that we are ready to begin our speech. Nonverbal behaviors usually represent the most efficient and least offensive means of regulating interaction. To say, “Shut up, Tom” may trigger a hostile and defensive reaction; to present the same message by eye contact or gesture is a more desirable way. Nodding and eye contact are two typical nonverbal hints that mean “I want to talk” and “It’s your turn to talk”. When we want to indicate we have finished speaking and the other person can start in a conversation, we may increase our eye contact with the other person. Conversely, if we want to keep the other from speaking, we may decrease eye contact and perhaps raise the volume. When we do not want to take a speaking turn, we might reinforce our head nods and maintain attentive eye contact. Rapid nods may signal the speaker to hurry up and finish while slow and silent nods usually indicate the speaker’s talking will continue.
3.6Contradicting
The term contradicting includes a variety of ways verbal and nonverbal signals are not in agreement with each other. A young woman told her psychological doctor that she was deeply in love with her boy friend with shaking her head at the same time that unconsciously disapproved what she said. (P3) “He that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret.”(Sigmund Freud(P181)) That is to say, our nonverbal actions would tell the truths that are tried to cover by verbal messages. You tell someone you are relaxed and at ease, yet your voice quavers and your hands shake.
The contradictory message occurs because people do not want to tell the truth and they do not want to lie. In most cases, we don’t like to contradict others, hurt their feeling or let them lose face. When a friend gave a terrible presentation, we may say “You did it quite well.” but our voice, face and body may not support the words. On other occasions, people even use contradictory messages to communicate sarcasm or irony, saying one thing with words but meaning the opposite with vocal tone or facial expressions.
Because people rely mostly on nonverbal messages when they receive conflicting data, we need to be aware of the dangers inherent in sending opposing messages. |
