网范文：“Application to the analysis of the philosophical paradoxes” 在这一点上,值得运用具体问题的略论。我们将通过略论说明这几个当代哲学悖论，尽力展示偏见的问题与问题相关的定义。在这篇范文中，英语论文，我们可以看到,黑色物体的类也可以定义不存在的歧义,特别是刚刚提到的具体分类。直观地说,我们应该考虑一个引用类,上升到包括抽象对象，英语论文网站，因此我们是否应该考虑这个概念,包括抽象实体,如整数和复数。或者我们应该考虑引用类,它包含所有众生,甚至所有具体的东西。
因此,事实证明,声明亨佩尔的悖论,特别是命题的引用,这样一个引用可以吸收物种,鸟类,动物等具体的事情,或者具体的和抽象的东西等。然而,在亨佩尔悖论的声明中,没有客观的标准做出这样的选择。下面的范文进行讲述。
Abstract
At this point, it is worth applying the foregoing to the analysis of concrete problems. We shall illustrate this through the analysis of several contemporary philosophical paradoxes: Hempel's paradox, the surprise examination paradox and the Doomsday argument. We will endeavour to show how a problem of one-sidednessn bias associated with a problem of definition of a reference class can be found in the analysis of the aforementioned philosophical paradoxes. In addition, we will show how the very definition of the reference class associated with each paradox is susceptible of being qualified with the help of the dual poles A and Ā of a given duality A/Ā as they have just been defined.
We shall endeavour now to detail the dichotomous analysis on which is based the solution proposed in Franceschi (1999). The corresponding approach is based on finding a reference class associated with the statement of the paradox, which may be defined with the help of an A/Ā duality. If we scrutinise the concepts and categories that underlie propositions (H) and (H*), we first note that there are four categories: ravens, black objects, non-black objects and nonravens. To begin with, a raven is precisely defined within the taxonomy in which it inserts itself. A category such as that of the ravens can be considered well-defined, since it is based on a precise set of criteria defining the species corvus corax and allowing the identification of its instances. Similarly, the class of black objects can be accurately described, from a taxonomy of colours determined with respect to the wave lengths of light.
Finally, we can see that the class of non-black objects can also be a definition that does not suffer from ambiguity, in particular from the specific taxonomy of colours which has been just mentioned. However, what about the class of non-ravens? What does constitute then an instance of a non-raven? Intuitively, a blue blackbird, a red flamingo, a grey umbrella and even a natural number, are non-ravens. But should we consider a reference class that goes up to include abstract objects? Should we thus consider a notion of non-raven that includes abstract entities such as integers and complex numbers? Or should we limit ourselves to a reference class that only embraces the animals? Or should we consider a reference class that encompasses all living beings, or even all concrete things, also including this time the artefacts?
Thus, it turns out that the statement of Hempel's paradox and in particular of proposition (H*) is associated with a reference class, which allow to define the non-ravens. Such a reference class can be assimilated to corvids, birds, animals, living beings, concrete things, or to concrete and abstract things, etc.. However, in the statement of Hempel's paradox, there is no objective criterion for making such a choice. At this point, it turns out that one can choose such a reference class restrictively, by assimilating it for example to corvids. But in an equally legitimate manner, we can choose a reference class more extensively, by identifying it for example to the set of concrete things, thus notably including umbrellas. Why then choose such or such reference class defined in a restrictive way rather than another one extensively defined? Indeed, we are lacking a criterion allowing to justify the choice of the reference class, whether we proceed by restriction or by extension.
Therefore, it turns out that the latter can only be defined arbitrarily. But the choice of such a reference class proves crucial because depending on whether you choose such or such class reference, a given object such as a grey umbrella will confirm or not (H*) and therefore (H). Hence, if we choose the reference class by extension, thus including all concrete objects, a grey umbrella will confirm (H). On the other hand, if we choose such a reference class by restriction, by assimilating it only to corvids, a grey umbrella will not confirm (H). Such a difference proves to be essential. In effect, if we choose a definition by extension of the reference class, the paradoxical effect inherent to Hempel's paradox ensues. By contrast, if we choose a reference class restrictively defined, the paradoxical effect disappears.
The foregoing permits to describe accurately the elements of the preceding analysis of Hempel's paradox in terms of one-sidedness bias such as it has been defined above: to the paradox and in particular to proposition (H*) are associated the reference class of non-ravens, which itself is susceptible of being defined with regard to the extension/restriction duality. However, for a given object such as a grey umbrella, the definition of the reference class by extension leads to a paradoxical effect, whereas the choice of the latter by restriction does not lead to such an effect.
Application to the analysis of the surprise examination paradox
The classical version of the surprise examination paradox (Quine 1953, Sorensen 1988) goes as follows: a teacher tells his students that an examination will take place on the next week, but they will not know in advance the precise date on which the examination will occur. The examination will thus occur surprisingly. The students reason then as follows. The examination cannot take place on Saturday, they think, otherwise they would know in advance that the examination would take place on Saturday and therefore it could not occur surprisingly. Thus, Saturday is eliminated. In addition, the examination can not take place on Friday, otherwise the students would know in advance that the examination would take place on Friday and so it could not occur surprisingly.
Thus, Friday is also ruled out. By a similar reasoning, the students eliminate successively Thursday, Wednesday, Tuesday and Monday. Finally, every day of the week is eliminated. However, this does not preclude the examination of finally occurring by surprise, say on Wednesday. Thus, the reasoning of the students proved to be fallacious. However, such reasoning seems intuitively valid. The paradox lies here in the fact the students' reasoning is apparently valid, whereas it finally proves inconsistent with the facts, i.e. that the examination can truly occur by surprise, as initially announced by the professor. In order to introduce the dichotomous analysis (Franceschi 2017) that can be applied to the surprise examination paradox, it is worth considering first two variations of the paradox that turn out to be structurally different. The first variation is associated with the solution to the paradox proposed by Quine (1953).
Quine considers then the student's final conclusion that the examination can not take place surprisingly on any day of the week. According to Quine, the student's error lies in the fact of not having envisaged from the beginning that the examination could take place on the last day. Because the fact of considering precisely that the examination will not take place on the last day finally allows the examination to occur by surprise on the last day. If the student had also considered this possibility from the beginning, he would not have been committed to the false conclusion that the examination can not occur surprisingly. The second variation of the paradox that proves interesting in this context is the one associated with the remark made by several authors (Hall 1999, p. 661, Williamson 2017), according to which the paradox emerges clearly when the number n of units is large. Such a number is usually associated with a number n of days, but we may as well use hours, minutes, seconds, etc.. An interesting feature of the paradox is indeed that it emerges intuitively more significantly when large values of n are involved. A striking illustration of this phenomenon is thus provided by the variation of the paradox that corresponds to the following situation, described by Timothy Williamson (2017, p 139).
The variation described by Williamson corresponds to the announcement made to someone that he/she will receive a phone call during the week, but without being able to determine in advance at what exact second the latter event will occur. This variation highlights how surprise may occur, in a quite plausible way, when the value of n is high. The unit of time considered here by Williamson is the second, in relation with a time duration that corresponds to one week. The corresponding value of n here is very high and equal to 604800 (60 x 60 x 24 x 7) seconds.
However, it is not necessary to take into account a value as large of n, and a value of n equal to 365, for example, should also be well-suited. The fact that two versions of the paradox that seem a priori quite different coexist suggests that two structurally different versions of the paradox could be inextricably intertwined within the surprise examination paradox. In fact, if we analyse the version of the paradox that leads to Quine's solution, we find that it has a peculiarity: it is likely to occur for a value of n equal to 1. The corresponding version of the professor's announcement is then as follows: “An examination will take place tomorrow, but you will not know in advance that this will happen and therefore it will occur surprisingly.” Quine's analysis applies directly to this version of the paradox for which n = 1. In this case, the student's error resides, according to Quine, in the fact of having only considered the hypothesis:
“the examination will take place tomorrow and I predict that it will take place.” In fact, the student should also have considered three cases: (ii) “the examination will not take place tomorrow, and I predict that it will take place ” (iii) “the examination will not take place tomorrow and I do not predict that it will take place” (iv) “the examination will take place tomorrow and I do not predict that it will take place.” And the fact of having envisaged hypothesis (i), but also hypothesis (iv) which is compatible with the professor's announcement would have prevented the student to conclude that the examination would not finally take place. Therefore, as Quine stresses, it is the fact of having only taken into account the hypothesis (i) that can be identified as the cause of the fallacious reasoning.
As we can see it, the foregoing developments implement the form of dialectical contextualism that has been described above by applying it to the analysis of three contemporary philosophical paradoxes. In Hempel's paradox, the reference class of the non-ravens is associated with proposition (H*), which itself is susceptible of being defined with regard to the extension/restriction duality. However, for a given object x such as a grey umbrella, the definition of the reference class by extension leads to a paradoxical effect , whereas the choice of the latter reference class by restriction eliminates this specific effect. Secondly, the matrix structures associated with the surprise examination paradox are analysed from the angle of the joint/disjoint duality, thus highlighting two structurally distinct versions of the paradox , which themselves admit of two independent resolutions. Finally, at the level of the Doomsday argument, a double dichotomic analysis shows that the class of humans is related to the extension/restriction duality, and that the paradoxical effect that is evident when the reference class is defined by extension, dissolves when the latter is defined by restriction. It turns out, second, that the class of models can be defined according to the synchronic/diachronic duality; a paradoxical effect is associated with the synchronic view, whereas the same effect disappears if we place 12 Diachrony Synchrony Diachrony Synchrony Extension Restriction ourselves from the diachronic perspective.
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