网范文：“Electronic Media and the Future of the History of Psychology” 在未来几年出版物上的心理学会是什么样子?具体地说,什么作用我们正在经历的心理学历史趋势?首先,回顾过去几年的电子学术出版,特别是物理和生物科学。考虑的方面特别是APA,发展到当前为止,并考虑可能是更多的前瞻性，英语论文范文，英语论文范文，包括心理学的历史学家。最后,我离开目前的细节讨论电子期刊,并推测一下新形式的出版,特别是在过去的几年里。
许多学术期刊,包括美国心理协会,现在的电子出版以及传统的印刷格式。绝大多数期刊在线收费阅读,通过年度订阅,网站访问授权,或按次计费的系统。下面的范文进行详述。
Introduction.
What will publications on the history of psychology look like in the coming years? Specifically, what impact will the electronic communications revolution we are currently experiencing have upon history of psychology publishing trends? These are the main questions I address in this . First, I review the key developments of the last few years in electronic academic publishing, particularly in the physical and biological sciences. Second, I examine what psychology's reaction, particularly that of the APA, has been to these developments thus far, and consider responses that might have been more forward-looking and beneficial to psychologists including to historians of psychology. Finally, I move away from the details of the current debate about electronic journals, and speculate a bit about new forms of publication that are made possible by the new electronic media, focussing in particular on one that I have been developing over the last few years.
The Electronic Journal.
Many academic journals, including those of the American Psychological Association, are now published electronically as well as in traditional print format. The vast majority of these journals charge for the privilege of reading them on-line, either by annual subscriptions, site-licenses, or some sort of pay-per-view system. For most of these, it is clear that the electronic editions are regarded as being greatly subordinate to the printed version: the electronic edition either employs Adobe Acrobat technology in order to simply produce facsimiles of the printed article, or they produce an electronic document without page numbers, paragraph numbers, or any other intra-document location indices, making it impossible to cite a passage from the electronic edition alone.
Some including many commercial publishers seem to believe that the story of electronic publication ends here, in producing electronic facsimiles of traditional print journal articles, but of course, the story barely begins here. Many new all-electronic journals have popped up over the last few years, a number offering their articles for free to the interested reader. It is often complained that many of these journals do not publish the highest quality research. This is true for some of them, but this is not necessarily due to the lack of revenue that would be generated by paying customers. It is largely because college and university tenure committees all too often depending very heavily on journal "brand names" to make their judgment do not recognize these new electronic journals, forcing prudent young scholars to submit their best work to old-line print journals, even though in principle a free, web-based vehicle would distribute their work more widely and more quickly. This is, of course, a complicated problem. Prestige and popularity play a chicken-and-egg game with each other too intricate for me to unravel here. But, there is no reason in principle that electronic journals could not be among the most prestigious in the world. To deny the possibility is simply to fall for the electronic equivalent of judging a book by its cover.
Something that we scholars seem to have forgotten over the decades is the economic model by which traditional academic journals operate: "we" give "them" our work at no cost, which "they" then have evaluated by other academics, also at no cost, and then "they" sell it back to "us" at a profit. For over a century we have submitted to this "Faustian bargain" (as Stevan Harnad has called it) primarily because "they" had the printing presses that "we" needed in order to get our work distributed to our colleagues. But the arrival of electronic communications media has changed all that. In principal, we could now distribute our own work to our own colleagues the world over for virtually nothing (of course we would use web servers paid for by our colleges and universities, but it is their primary business, after all, to supply the infrastructure needed for us to carry out our academic work, is it not?).
Beyond the Journal.
Thus far, however, I have been talking as though it were essential that we continue to cling to the structures of the traditional journal. The traditional journal format, however, is deeply rooted in constraints imposed by the economies of the printing press and the postal system. It is only force of habit that leads us to attempt to recreate this format in the new electronic media. Surely there are other models for dissemination of scholarly information that the new electronic media make practicable. In the world of physics the future is already here. The Los Alamos E-Print Archive for high-energy physics s was established by Paul Ginsparg (with the support of an NSF grant) all the way back in 1991. Its submission rate has rapidly increased over the past decade to the point where it now receives over 2500 submissions per month (over 30,000/year). The Los Alamos Archive is not an electronic journal per se, but a web site on which physicists can post pre-prints of their research s for immediate perusal by their colleagues (and anyone else who wants). (Ginsparg, by the way, estimates his overhead costs at about $1 per , not the thousands of dollars that each printed journal article costs to produce.) The Archive does only a cursory review, filtering for "appropriateness" of subject area and the institutional affiliation of the author, but Ginsparg estimates that 75-80% of the high-energy physics s appearing on his Archive are eventually published (many months later, of course) as regular journal articles, but the Archive allows the work to be seen, evaluated, and incorporated into new work far in advance of that. Now, as many of you will recall, a few years ago the American Psychological Association very publicly and somewhat ominously embraced an electronic extension to the so-called Ingelfinger rule (named after the one-time editor of the New England Journal of Medicine), announcing, in effect, that any document published electronically would be considered to have been "previously published" and thus be ineligible for consideration by any APA journal. After hearing about the Los Alamos Archive psychologists often wonder why physicists would be willing to risk such sanctions from their own publishers and organizations. The answer is that the Physical Society of America imposes no such restrictions on its members. It has embraced the new technology and encourages electronic pre-publication the science is more important to the PSA than the sales.
The trend set by the Los Alamos Archive has rapidly spread to other disciplines as well, including some fields quite close to psychology. Stevan Harnad, for instance, established a few years ago CogPrints, an open electronic archive of s in psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, and the cognitively-relevant parts of computer science, philosophy, biology, and anthropology. It operates along similar lines to the Los Alamos archive, and much of the material archived on CogPrints is subsequently print published as well. Indeed, there are now enough successful open electronic archives of this sort in various disciplines that their founders held an "Open Archives Initiative" conference last year to establish a set of conventions the so-called "Santa Fe Convention" to enable the different archives to communicate with each other seamlessly, forming what Ginsparg calls a "global research archive." They have also made available for free download software called Eprints that enables one (with some knowledge of UNIX systems) to establish one's own electronic open archive. Harnad believes that colleges and universities are the institutions best suited to set up open archives, to be used by their faculty members. Recent tensions between the commercial interests of university administrations and the scholarly interests of their faculty members, however, have led me to believe that scholarly societies especially relatively small, specialized ones with few corporate aspirations are probably better positioned to serve scholars' interests.
Harnad argues that authors should be electronically self-archiving all their work, regardless of the Ingelfinger-inspired embargo policies of the New England Journal of Medicine, the APA, and a number of other (mostly commercial) publishers. At first glance, this may seem to be a very radical position, but once one becomes familiar with the more liberal practices in other sciences, the Ingelfinger rule seems unfairly restrictive and perhaps worthy of active resistance. Harnad believes that the electronic Ingelfinger rule is effectively unenforceable, and recommends the following procedure to evade it: First one electronically posts a pre-print of one's journal submission. If it is accepted, one should first attempt to delete the offending clauses of the contract with the publisher. If the publisher refuses, however, one should simply make the revisions that are typically required, and then post a link from the original pre-print to a second web document detailing the changes made to produce the final draft. In this way, no electronic copy fully identical to the article ultimately print-published is available electronically.
Many psychologists, of course, are going to be uncomfortable with what might be regarded as the devious nature of this evasion, and perhaps more to the point, are not willing to risk their careers against the possible wrath of the powerful APA journal system. Be that as it may, it is important to be cognizant of the fact that the APA's current publications policies are much more restrictive than those enforced by many other major academic societies, and even some commercial journals publishers (such as Academic Press).
History of Psychology
The first Special Collection, entitled "Institutions of Early Experimental Psychology" is currently under construction. It includes articles on the founding and early operation of psychological laboratories, courses, journals, and professional associations. A second Special Collection, also now under construction, is on "Women and Early Psychology" and is edited by APA Division 26's President-Elect, Kathy Milar. It will include several early studies of women's psychology and s on women's position in the emerging discipline of psychology, many of them written by women researchers such as Mary Whiton Calkins, Leta Hollingworth, Christine Ladd-Franklin, Helen Bradford Thompson, and Ethel Puffer Howes. A third Special Collection, just now getting under way, edited by John Benjafield, will focus on the rise and fall of experimental aesthetics in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. One of my hopes for the Classics site is that it is helping to change the way in which history of psychology courses are taught depending less and less on traditional textbooks, and more and more on having students read and interpret primary source materials.
The format of Classics is, of course, only one of an indefinite number of possibilities for using the electronic communications revolution to advance the study of the history of psychology. For one thing, Classics is currently largely text-based, but the world wide web makes it much easier to distribute pictorial, audio, and even video recordings than ever before. For instance, a few years ago the Archives of the History of American Psychology was advertising copies of a recently-recovered Soviet film on classical conditioning originally produced, I believe, by Pavlov's Institute. Barring copyright complications, it would be an excellent resource to make universally available for download on the There are many of films of historical-psychological interest that could be posted as well. Radio and television interviews with influential psychologists, electronic editions of historically-significant psychometric tests, pictures and simulations of historical psychological instruments and experiments all of these things and more could be (and are being) posted to the WWW for use by students and researchers the world over.
In conclusion, my plea here is that rather than attempting to minimize the electronic communications revolution by worrying about what aspects of the old media it does not faithfully mirror, that we should dive in and use it to its fullest potential. We will figure out the solutions to the new problems it poses only by using it, just as we did when we switched from to clay tablets to , or from quill to typewriter. There can be no real doubt that in the long run the new electronic media offer us far more than and ink ever did. All we really have to lose are our chains.()
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